CleanSkirt

Promotional pens: everyone seems to want one.

2007-02-06T00:45:00.000-08:00

Are you looking for potential suppliers of promotional
products? From economy ballpoint pens to exclusive pen sets, you can choose
the best advertising promotional
pens for your advertising needs. That is a great way to easily promote your
business. Cheap promotional pens are always popular and extremely affordable (also
they travel well). But not forget to consider other effective products:t-shirt
(can be seen by hundreds of people each time your shirt is worn), key chains,
mugs and travel Mugs, magnets, desk Items, calendars. Think carefully about your
target audience and their lifestyle, then you can determine if these promotional
products are the best selection to accomplish your objectives.

Beja

2005-04-04T11:36:00.000-07:00

Arabic Bujah, nomadic people grouped into tribes and occupying mountain country between the Red Sea and the Nile and 'Atbarah rivers from the latitude of Aswan southeastward to the Eritrean Plateau—that is, from southeastern Egypt through The Sudan and into Eritrea. Numbering about 1,900,000 in the late 20th century, the Beja are descended from peoples who have lived in the area since 4000 BC or

Biblical Literature, Prayer of Manasseh

2005-04-03T23:55:00.000-07:00

In some manuscripts of the Septuagint and in two later Christian writings, a pseudepigraphic Prayer of Manasseh is contained. This prayer was composed with reference to II Chron. 33:11–18, according to which the wicked Judaean king Manasseh repented and prayed. In the present form the prayer is Greek in origin, but it may have existed in a Hebrew version, of which the Greek is

Jube

2005-04-03T03:51:00.000-07:00

(from the French jubé), construction marking off the chancel, or sanctuary, of a church from the rest of the interior. Its mature medieval form consisted of three basic elements: a screen (known in England as a rood screen); a gallery, or loft, from which the words Jube, Domine, benedicere (hence jubé) were spoken; and a crucifix (rood) surmounting the whole. See rood screen.

Biblical Literature, Ezekiel

2005-04-02T08:57:00.000-08:00

The Book of Ezekiel, written by the prophetpriest Ezekiel, who lived both in Jerusalem prior to the Babylonian Exile (586 BCE) and in Babylon after the Exile, and also by an editor (or editors), who belongs to a “school” of the prophet similar to that of the prophet Isaiah, has captured the attention of readers for centuries because of its vivid imagery and symbolism. The book has also

älvsborg

2005-04-02T06:12:00.000-08:00

Former län (county) of southwestern Sweden, located to the west and south of Lake Vänern. Formed as a county in 1634, it was merged with the counties of Göteborg och Bohus and Skaraborg in 1998 to form the county of Västra Götaland.

Aqa Mirak

2005-04-01T03:36:00.000-08:00

A descendant of the Prophet Muhammad and a native of Esfahan, he worked mostly in Tabriz, the capital of the Safavid empire. He knew the Persian painter Behzad, who was director of the royal library and its manager of manuscript illustration. Aqa Mirak, as one of the senior

Pachymeres, George

2005-03-31T13:22:00.000-08:00

Upon the fall in 1262 of the Latin Eastern Empire and the return of the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus, Pachymeres went to Constantinople and was ordained to the

Cancer

2005-03-31T07:46:00.000-08:00

Group of more than 100 distinct diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Cancer affects one in every three persons born in developed countries and is a major cause of sickness and death throughout the world. Though it has been known since antiquity, significant improvements in cancer treatment have been made since the middle

Jhabua

2005-03-30T16:57:00.000-08:00

Town, administrative headquarters of Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh state, central India. Located on Bahadur Sagar (lake), it was founded in the 16th century by a Labhana freebooter and served as the capital of the former Jhabua princely state. It is a local agricultural and timber market connected by road with Dhar. There is a government college affiliated with Vikram

Osceola

2005-03-29T05:46:00.000-08:00

Osceola moved from Georgia to Florida, where, although not a chief, he came to be acknowledged as a leader

Teagarden, Jack

2005-03-29T00:58:00.000-08:00

Beginning on trombone at age seven, Teagarden was entirely self-taught. After drifting across the Southwest, he eventually arrived in New York City in 1927 and made his recording debut; from that moment he was the acknowledged

Ksar El-boukhari

2005-03-28T06:42:00.000-08:00

Also called Boghari, town, north-central Algeria. Lying along the Chelif River at the junction of the High Plateau and the Atlas Mountains, the town is almost totally surrounded by wooded mountain ridges. The old walled quarter (ksar) is on a hill, overlooking the modern town. Ksar el-Boukhari is a commercial centre for pastoral peoples of the interior, who trade in wool, livestock, and cereals.

'atasi, Hashim Al-

2005-03-27T22:20:00.000-08:00

An official in the Ottoman administration of Syria in his early life, 'Atasi became a member of the Syrian Congress in 1919. The next year the Congress proclaimed Greater Syria an independent constitutional monarchy. As one of the nationalist leaders opposing the French occupation and mandate in

La Noue, François De

2005-03-26T19:32:00.000-08:00

La Noue became a Protestant in 1558 and soon began fighting for the Huguenot cause. Wounded at Fontenay (1570), he had one arm replaced by an iron device and was thereafter nicknamed Bras-de-Fer (“Arm of Iron”). After the Peace of

Strategy

2005-03-26T02:26:00.000-08:00

In warfare, the science or art of employing all the military, economic, political, and other resources of a nation to achieve the objects of war.

Qatar

2005-03-25T22:20:00.000-08:00

In 2002 Qatar continued to figure prominently in regional and international news, largely as a result of its ongoing chairmanship of the Organization of the Islamic Conference and its 57 member countries. Qatar was a prominent interlocutor with international and regional organizations and, in particular, with the United Nations, the United States, and other allied

Cordia

2005-03-25T15:08:00.000-08:00

The leaves of the tropical American geiger tree, aloewood, or sebesten plum (C.

Terborch, Gerard

2005-03-25T13:17:00.000-08:00

Terborch's father had been an artist and had visited Rome but from 1621 was employed as a tax collector. Surviving drawings made by the young Terborch

Amargosa Range

2005-03-23T08:16:00.000-08:00

Group of mountains in eastern California and southern Nevada, U.S., separating Death Valley from the Amargosa Desert. Part of the Basin Ranges of eastern California, the Amargosa Range extends 110 miles (180 km) from Grapevine Peak (8,705 feet [2,653 m]), south-southeastward to the Amargosa River. It is composed of three distinct mountain groups: the Grapevine, Funeral, and Black. Dante's View,

Essex

2005-03-23T06:19:00.000-08:00

One of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England; i.e., that of the East Saxons. An area of early settlement, it probably originally included the territory of the modern county of Middlesex; London was its chief town. Essex sometimes had joint kings, and from 664 they were subject to the rulers of the midland kingdom of Mercia. From 825 Essex was controlled by Wessex, first as a subkingdom

Valencia

2005-03-23T01:42:00.000-08:00

Capital of Valencia province and the autonomous community (region) of Valencia, and of the former kingdom of Valencia, eastern Spain. Located on the Mediterranean coast at the mouth of the Río Turia (Guadalaviar), it is surrounded by orchards in a region known as the Huerta de Valencia. The earliest mention (Valentia) is by the Roman historian Livy, who states that the consul

Goliad

2005-03-21T07:01:00.000-08:00

Historic city, seat (1837) of Goliad county, southern Texas, U.S., near the San Antonio River, 85 miles (137 km) southeast of San Antonio and 80 miles (129 km) north of Corpus Christi. A Spanish mission, Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo Zuñiga (Spanish: “Our Lady of the Holy Spirit of Zuñiga”), and its protective fort, Presidio La Bahía, were established there in 1749 on the site of an Aranama Indian village.

Essex

2005-03-21T01:28:00.000-08:00

French Banque Africaine De Développement African organization established in August 1963 and operational beginning in July 1966 and dedicated to economic development. The Secretariat of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, together with a nine-member committee of experts from member states, engineered the original agreement of establishment, but the bank is not formally associated with the

Ludwig, Carl F.w.

2005-03-20T02:29:00.000-08:00

A professor of physiology at the universities of Marburg (1846–49), Zürich (1849–55), Vienna (1855–65), and Leipzig (1865–95), Ludwig is best known for his study of the cardiovascular system. He invented (1847) a device known as a kymograph to record changes in arterial blood

Guernsey

2005-03-19T17:04:00.000-08:00

Breed of dairy cattle originating on Guernsey, one of the Channel Islands. Like the Jersey, this breed is thought to have descended from the cattle of nearby Normandy and Brittany. All the cattle of the Channel Islands were at one time known as Alderneys. After laws had been enacted prohibiting the importation of cattle to the islands except for slaughter, the Jersey

Ikhtilaf

2005-03-19T14:55:00.000-08:00

(Arabic: “disagreement”), in Islam, differences of opinion on religious matters. Such diversity is permissible as long as the basic principles of Islam are not affected. Ikhtilaf is thus the opposite of ijma' (consensus). Ikhtilaf permits a Muslim to choose the interpretation of religious teachings that best suits his own circumstances and causes the least harm. Two famous

Sacrifice, Religions of India

2005-03-19T06:34:00.000-08:00

Speculations regarding sacrifice and prescribed rituals seem to have been worked out more fully in the Vedic and later Hindu religion in India than anywhere else. These rites, laid down in a complicated system known mainly from the Brahmana texts, included obligatory sacrifices following the course of the year or the important moments in the life of an individual

Baccio D'agnolo

2005-03-18T23:18:00.000-08:00

Byname of Bartolomeo D'agnolo Baglioni wood-carver, sculptor, and architect who exerted an important influence on the Renaissance architecture of Florence. Between 1491 and 1502 he did much of the decorative carving in the church of Santa Maria Novella and in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. He helped restore the Palazzo Vecchio and in 1506 was commissioned to complete the drum of the cupola

Arts, Central Asian, Sculpture

2005-03-17T11:58:00.000-08:00

The art of casting images in bronze and other metals entered Tibet from Nepal and India. Having first followed foreign models, the Tibetans gradually developed their own styles

Franchet D'esperey, Louis-félix-françois

2005-03-17T09:32:00.000-08:00

Trained at Saint-Cyr, d'Esperey served during the prewar period in Algeria and Tunisia. At the outbreak of World War I, he was a corps commander at

Steen, Jan (havickszoon)

2005-03-16T08:48:00.000-08:00

Dutch painter, ranked immediately after Rembrandt and Hals as a painter of everyday scenes. Steen is unique among leading 17th-century Dutch painters for his humour; he has often been compared to the French comic playwright Molière, his contemporary, and indeed both men treated life as a vast comedy of manners. Some of the artist's biblical and

Châtelet, Gabrielle-émilie Le Tonnelier De Breteuil, Marquise Du

2005-03-16T04:31:00.000-08:00

She was married at 19 to the Marquis Florent du Châtelet, governor of Semur-en-Auxois, with whom she had three children. The marquis then took up a military career and thereafter saw his wife only infrequently. Mme du Châtelet returned to Paris and its dazzling social

China, Foreign affairs under Yang-ti

2005-03-15T19:45:00.000-08:00

In addition to these farsighted construction works, Yang-ti also pursued a very active foreign policy. An expedition to the south established sovereignty over the old Chinese settlement in Tongking and over the Champa state of Lin-yi in central Nam Viet. Several expeditions were sent to Taiwan, and relations with Japan were opened. The T'u-yü-hun people were driven

Adair V. The United States

2005-03-15T08:01:00.000-08:00

(1908), case in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld “yellow dog” contracts forbidding workers from joining labour unions. William Adair of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad fired O.B. Coppage for belonging to a labour union, an action in direct violation of the Erdman Act of 1898, which prohibited railroads engaged in interstate commerce from requiring workers to refrain

Biblical Literature, Jewish versions

2005-03-14T13:00:00.000-08:00

Though Jews in English-speaking lands generally utilized the King James Version and the Revised Version, the English versions have presented great difficulties. They contain departures from the traditional Hebrew text; they sometimes embody Christological interpretations; the headings were often doctrinally objectionable and the renderings in the legal

Alaska, Tourism

2005-03-12T23:14:00.000-08:00

Alaska has had an upsurge of tourism. Travelers arrive mainly by air or sea and can now cover large areas by airplane and road. The influx is partly the result of the 500-passenger, 100-car ferries that operate as the Alaska Marine Highway. One ferry system connects Kodiak with mainland Seward and the Alaska Railroad, another links Cordova and Valdez, and a third serves panhandle

Andaman Islands

2005-03-12T20:25:00.000-08:00

Island group, Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory, India, in the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal. The Andamans constitute one of the two major groups of islands in the union territory. They include more than 300 islands (26 inhabited), with a land area of 2,474 square miles (6,408 square km). The three major islands are North Andaman, Middle Andaman, and South Andaman (closely

Murat River

2005-03-12T14:34:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Murad River, Turkish Murat Nehri, river, the major headstream of the Euphrates. In antiquity it was called Arsanias. The river rises north of Lake Van near Mount Ararat, in eastern Turkey, and flows westward for 449 miles (722 km) through a mountainous region to unite with the Karasu Çayi and form the Upper Euphrates near Malatya. Turkey's largest dam, the Keban, west of Elâzig, completed in 1974, is designed to provide electric

China, Transportation

2005-03-12T04:03:00.000-08:00

Great emphasis has been placed on the development of transport, because it is closely related to the development of the national economy, the consolidation of the national defense system, and the strengthening of national unification. Nevertheless, China's domestic transport system continues to constitute a major constraint on economic growth and the efficient

Peres, Shimon

2005-03-11T11:20:00.000-08:00

Original name Shimon Perski Israeli statesman, leader of the Israel Labour Party (1977–92, 1995–97, and 2003– ) who served as prime minister of Israel in 1984–86 and 1995–96. In 1993, in his role as foreign minister, Peres helped negotiate a peace accord with Yasir 'Arafat, chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), for which they, along with Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, were jointly

Bronson, Charles

2005-03-10T21:26:00.000-08:00

Bronson was one of 15 children of a Lithuanian coal miner, became a miner himself at age 16, and during World War II claimed to have served in the air force as a tail gunner (later reports suggest that he was stationed

Philip I

2005-03-10T13:31:00.000-08:00

Son of Philip of Burgundy, he inherited the duchy upon the death of his grandfather, Eudes IV, and inherited the countships upon the death of his grandmother, Joan of France. His mother, Joan of Boulogne, who subsequently married the king of France, John II, ruled Philip's

Ammonia-soda Process

2005-03-09T11:38:00.000-08:00

In the ammonia-soda process, common salt, sodium chloride, is treated with ammonia and then

Vigevano

2005-03-08T20:18:00.000-08:00

Industry has grown

Biblical Literature, The physical aspects of New Testament texts

2005-03-08T07:46:00.000-08:00

To establish the reliability of the text of ancient manuscripts in order to reach the text that the author originally wrote (or, rather, dictated) involves the physical aspects of the texts: collection, collation of differences or variant readings in manuscripts, and comparison in matters of dating, geographical origins, and the amount of editing or revision noted,

Interior Design, Lighting

2005-03-08T03:00:00.000-08:00

Light is one of the key elements of interior design. Most interior spaces constructed in the 20th century are used as much with artificial light as with daylight; because of this lighting has become a very significant tool for the interior designer. There are three major aspects to lighting: function, aesthetics, and health. The latter factor is often ignored, but insufficient

Switzerland, Precipitation

2005-03-07T17:38:00.000-08:00

Since rainfall tends to increase in direct proportion to altitude, the precipitation map corresponds very closely to the relief map; and, because of the marked variation in reliefs, differences in precipitation within short linear distances are often very great. For example, St. Gall (Sankt Gallen), at 2,556 feet, has an average annual precipitation of 52 inches (1,318 mm), while that

Arts, Central Asian, Afghanistan and the sedentary population of Turkistan

2005-03-07T14:37:00.000-08:00

This region of Central Asia includes Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and the oases of eastern (Chinese) Turkistan. The region lies within the Persian cultural area, and in the arts and in language the Persian imprint has endured over many centuries. In music the links with Persia appear most clearly in terminology and instruments. Islam, another Middle Eastern

Soka

2005-03-07T01:34:00.000-08:00

City, Saitama ken (prefecture), Honshu, Japan, on the Ayase River, north of Tokyo. During the Tokugawa period (1603–1867) Soka was a post station, noted for its leather and dyes. The Tobu Line (railway) arrived in 1899. Because of its proximity to Tokyo and available water and land, the city developed as an extension of the Keihin Industrial Zone after World War II. Major products are pulp, leather,

Akita

2005-03-06T17:21:00.000-08:00

Ken (prefecture), northwestern Honshu, Japan, on the Sea of Japan coast. Its area of 4,483 square miles (11,612 square km) is divided between lowlands (west) and a plateau region (east). The Hachiman Plateau is dotted with volcanoes such as Mount Komaga (5,371 feet [1,637 m]), near the eastern border with Iwate prefecture. The plateau is covered with white fir trees and alpine plants that grow amid

Platinum Group, Assaying

2005-03-05T20:01:00.000-08:00

Assaying ores and concentrates for platinum-group metals is extremely difficult, since the concentration of any particular metal may be less than one part per million. Initial concentration is achieved by fire assay. The assay bead is dissolved in aqua regia and the metals separated and concentrated, often by solvent extraction. Dissolution of the bead is complicated

Mozaffar Od-din Shah

2005-03-05T11:27:00.000-08:00

The son of the Qajar ruler Naser od-Din Shah, Mozaffar od-Din was named crown prince and sent as governor to the northern province of Azerbaijan in 1861. He spent his 35 years as crown prince in the pursuit of pleasure; his relations with his father were frequently

Anubis

2005-03-04T13:30:00.000-08:00

His particular concern was with the funerary cult and the care of the dead: hence he was reputed to be the

Amadeus Quartet

2005-03-04T01:10:00.000-08:00

English string quartet (1948–87), one of the most durable and highly regarded quartets of Europe. The quartet was formed in 1947, the result of an internment-camp meeting during World War II between three young Austrian refugees—Peter Schidlof, the group's violist; Norbert Brainin, a violinist; and Siegmund Nissel, also a violinist. They were released from the camp with help from Dame

Animal Behaviour

2005-03-03T13:37:00.000-08:00

A living animal behaves constantly in order to survive, and all animals must solve the same basic problems. They must, for instance, periodically replace their energy source (consume food), avoid dehydration (drink), avoid becoming another animal's energy source (avoid being eaten), maintain their body surfaces (clean and groom), and reproduce.

Abel

2005-03-02T20:05:00.000-08:00

In the Old Testament, second son of Adam and Eve, who was slain by his older brother, Cain (Genesis 4:1–16). According to Genesis, Abel, a shepherd, offered the Lord the firstborn of his flock. The Lord respected Abel's sacrifice but did not respect that offered by Cain. In a jealous rage, Cain murdered Abel. Cain then became a fugitive because his brother's innocent blood put a curse

Cromwell, Henry

2005-03-02T15:15:00.000-08:00

Cromwell studied at Cambridge University and Gray's Inn, London. During part of the English Civil Wars he served under his father in the Parliamentary army in England and Ireland. Henry became major general of the English forces

Arabia, Plant life

2005-03-02T06:40:00.000-08:00

The date palm grows almost everywhere, except at very high elevations and in Dhofar, on the coast of which it is replaced by the coconut palm. The date is a source of food, and uses are found for the trunk, branches, and fibre of the date palm. Among places noted for high-quality date-palm production are Medina, Bishah, and Al-Hasa. Alfalfa (lucerne), widely used as fodder, often fills

Cahan, Abraham

2005-03-01T11:22:00.000-08:00

Himself an immigrant, Cahan arrived in the United

Oak Ridge

2005-03-01T07:47:00.000-08:00

City, Anderson and Roane counties, eastern Tennessee, U.S. It lies in a valley between the Cumberland and Great Smoky mountains, about 20 miles (30 km) west of Knoxville, and is a part of that city's metropolitan area. A tract of land covering about 94 square miles (243 square km) was selected in 1942 as a major site of the U.S. wartime atomic energy program known as the Manhattan Project. Originally

Step Cut

2005-02-28T20:34:00.000-08:00

Also called Trap Cut, or Cushion Cut, method of faceting coloured gemstones in which the stone produced is rather flat with steps, or rows, of four-sided facets parallel to the girdle (the stone's widest part). Because the facets are parallel to the girdle, they are usually long and narrow, except at the corners of the stone. The angles that the main facets make with the plane of the girdle greatly affect the

Ma Yuan

2005-02-28T11:51:00.000-08:00

Wade-Giles romanization Ma Yüan influential Chinese landscape painter whose work, together with that of Xia Gui, formed the basis of the Ma-Xia school of painting. Ma occasionally painted flowers, but his genius lay in landscape painting, his lyrical and romantic interpretation becoming the model for later painters. He was a master of “one-corner” painting,

Abu 'ali Mustafa

2005-02-27T15:37:00.000-08:00

Born Mustafa al-Zibri, he later took the nom de guerre Abu 'Ali Mustafa. As a young man he joined George Habash's Arab National Movement,

Hinckley And Bosworth

2005-02-27T01:04:00.000-08:00

Borough (district), administrative and historic county of Leicestershire, England. It comprises the town of Hinckley, an important centre of the hosiery industry since framework knitting was introduced there in 1640, as well as the towns of Market Bosworth and Earl Shilton, which is a centre of both the hosiery and footwear industries. The Battle of Bosworth Field was

Pacific Islands

2005-02-26T06:28:00.000-08:00

Ron Crocombe, The South Pacific (1983); and Frederica M. Bunge and Melinda W. Cooke (eds.), Oceania, a Regional Study, 2nd ed. (1985), provide comprehensive information. Large-scale maps are found in Atlas of the South Pacific, 2nd ed. (1986), published by the New Zealand government. Herold J. Wiens, Atoll Environment and Ecology (1962), explores the physical characteristics of Pacific Islands environments. The classic demographic study is Norma McArthur, Island Populations of the Pacific (1967, reprinted 1983); see also Vern Carroll (ed.), Pacific Atoll Populations (1975). On physical anthropology, see William Howells, The Pacific Islanders (1973). F.R. Fosberg (ed.), Man's Place in the Island Ecosystem (1963); and Douglas L. Oliver, Oceania: The Native Cultures of Australia and the Pacific Islands, 2 vol. (1989), survey aspects of Pacific Islands societies. University of the South Pacific, Institute of Pacific Studies, Pacific Tourism, as Islanders See It (1980), analyzes the impact of tourism. Current writings about the area are found in Pacific Islands Business (monthly, Fiji); Pacific Magazine (bimonthly, Hawaii); and Pacific Islands Monthly (Australia). John Carter (ed.), Pacific Islands Yearbook, 15th ed. (1984), is a detailed reference work on contemporary conditions and events. For further research, see C.R.H. Taylor, A Pacific Bibliography: Printed Matter Relating to the Native Peoples of Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia, 2nd ed. (1965); and Bibliographie de l'Océanie, published irregularly by the Société des Océanistes in Paris.

Furniture, Other materials

2005-02-26T00:54:00.000-08:00

Among other secondary materials in furniture making, glass has been used in the form of mirrorglass or as a purely decorative, illusionistic element in cabinets and writing desks. Italian craftsmen have made glass furniture; that is, wooden furniture covered with silvered glass in various colours. Ivory and other forms of bone were used as inlay material in Egyptian

Pacific Islands

2005-02-25T19:48:00.000-08:00

Spanish Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo international organization founded in 1959 by 20 governments in North and South America to finance economic and social development in the Western Hemisphere. The largest charter subscribers were Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, and the United States. Subscribers now include nearly 30 countries in North and South America and more than 15 countries in Europe, as well

Romain Du Roi

2005-02-24T11:15:00.000-08:00

(French: King's Roman), in printing, a roman typeface developed in France at the express order of King Louis XIV, who, in 1692, directed that a typeface be designed at any necessary expense for the exclusive use of the royal printer. The design was the work, for several years, of a committee of the Academy of Sciences, whose members ignored calligraphic models in favour of analytical

Conservation

2005-02-23T21:43:00.000-08:00

Although the idea of conservation is probably as old as the human species, the use of the word in its present context is relatively recent. Over the years conservation

France, History Of, The causes of the French Revolution

2005-02-23T20:43:00.000-08:00

In an immediate sense, what brought down the ancien régime was its own inability to change or, more simply, to pay its way. The deeper causes for its collapse are more difficult to establish. One school of interpretation maintains that French society under the ancien régime was rent by class war. This position implies that the French Revolution revolved around issues

Botvinnik, Mikhail Moiseyevich

2005-02-22T20:59:00.000-08:00

At the age of 14, less than two years after he had learned the moves of chess, Botvinnik defeated the then-current world champion, José Raúl Capablanca, in one game of an exhibition in which

Biblical Literature, Old Testament canon, texts, and versions

2005-02-22T02:03:00.000-08:00

Otto Eissfeldt, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, 3rd ed. (1964; Eng. trans., The Old Testament: An Introduction, 1965); The Cambridge History of the Bible (chb), 3 vol. (1963–70). (The Canon): Frants Buhl, Kanon und Text des Alten Testaments (1891; Eng. trans., Canon and Text of the Old Testament, 1892); Max L. Margolis, The Hebrew Scriptures in the Making (1922); Herbert E. Ryle, The Canon of the Old Testament, 2nd ed. (1895); Solomon Zeitlin, “An Historical Study of the Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures,” Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, pp. 121–158 (1932). (Textual criticism, texts and manuscripts, and early versions): Frank Moore Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumrân and Modern Biblical Studies, 2nd ed. (1961); “The History of the Biblical Text in the Light of Discoveries in the Judaean Desert,” Harvard Theological Review, 57:281–299 (1964); and “The Contribution of the Qumrân Discoveries to the Study of the Biblical Text,” Israel Exploration Journal, 16:81–95 (1966); Christian D. Ginsburg, Introduction to the Massoretico: Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible (1897, reprinted 1966); Moshe H. Goshen-gottstein, Linguistic Structure and Tradition in the Qumran Documents (1958); “Theory and Practice of Textual Criticism,” Textus, 3:130–158 (1963); and The Book of Isaiah: Sample Edition with Introduction (1965); Moshe Greenberg, “The Stabilization of the Text of the Hebrew Bible,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, 76:157–167 (1956). Paul Kahle, The Cairo Genizah, 2nd ed. (1959); Frederick G. Kenyon, The Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts, 5th ed. rev. (1958); Harry M. Orlinsky, “The Textual Criticism of the Old Testament,” in George E. Wright (ed.), The Bible and the Ancient Near East, pp. 113–132 (1961); Bleddyn J. Roberts, The Old Testament Text and Versions (1951); and “The Old Testament: Manuscripts, Text and Versions,” CHB, vol. 2, pp. 1–26 (1969); P.W. Skehan, “Qumran and the Present State of Old Testament Text Studies,” Journal of Biblical Literature, 78:21–25 (1959); S. Talmon, “Aspects of the Textual Transmission of the Bible in the Light of Qumran Manuscripts,” Textus, 4:95–132 (1964); Ernst Wurthwein, Der Text des Alten Testaments (1952; Eng. trans., The Text of the Old Testament, 1957). (Later and modern versions–English versions): David Daiches, The King James Version of the English Bible (1941, reprinted 1968); Margaret Deanesly, The Lollard Bible and Other Medieval Biblical Versions (1920, reprinted 1966); Herman Hailperin, Rashi and the Christian Scholars (1963); William F. Moulton, The History of the English Bible, 5th ed. (1911); Alfred W. Pollard, Records of the English Bible (1911); and, with G.R. Redgrave, A Short-Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, and Ireland and of English Books Printed Abroad 1475–1640 (1926, reprinted 1969); B.F. Westcott, A General View of the History of the English Bible, 3rd ed. rev. by W.A. Wright (1905). (Continental versions and non-European versions): Thomas H. Darlow and Horace F. Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of the Holy Scripture in the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 2 vol. (1903–11); Josef Schmid (ed.), “Moderne Bibelübersetzungen,” Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie, 82:290–332 (1960).

Chateaubriand, François-auguste-rené, Viscount (vicomte) De

2005-02-21T21:18:00.000-08:00

The youngest child of an eccentric and impecunious noble, Chateaubriand spent his school holidays largely with his sister in the romantic

Hale, Edward Everett

2005-02-21T20:46:00.000-08:00

A grandnephew of the Revolutionary hero Nathan Hale and a nephew of Edward Everett, the orator, Hale trained on his father's newspaper, the Boston Daily Advertiser, and turned early to writing. For 70 years newspaper articles, historical

Frederick William Ii

2005-02-21T04:18:00.000-08:00

The son of Frederick the Great's brother Augustus William, he became heir presumptive on his father's death in 1758. He was intellectually receptive and devoted to the

Mammal, The evolution of the mammalian condition

2005-02-20T13:05:00.000-08:00

Mammals were derived in the Triassic Period from members of the reptilian order Therapsida. The therapsids, members of the subclass Synapsida (sometimes called the mammal-like reptiles), generally were unimpressive in relation to other reptiles of their time. Synapsids were present in the Carboniferous Period (about 280,000,000 to 345,000,000 years ago) and are one of the earliest known

Eisenach

2005-02-19T06:56:00.000-08:00

City, Thuringia Land (state), central Germany. It lies on the northwestern slopes of the Thüringer Wald, at the confluence of the Hörsel and Nesse rivers, west of the city of Erfurt. Founded by the landgraves of Thuringia c. 1150, Eisenach fell to the Saxon house of Wettin in 1264 and was chartered in 1283. It was intermittently the seat of a separate Saxon duchy between 1596 and 1741, when it fell to

Furniture, Bed

2005-02-18T18:20:00.000-08:00

As a furniture form, the bed

Hawkins, Sir Richard

2005-02-18T17:12:00.000-08:00

The only son of the famed seaman Sir John Hawkins by his first marriage, Richard Hawkins in 1582 sailed with his uncle William to the West Indies; in 1585 he commanded a ship on Sir

Aguarico River

2005-02-18T03:27:00.000-08:00

Spanish Río Aguarico, river, northeastern Ecuador, rising south of Tulcán, in the Andes mountains near the Ecuador-Colombia border, and flowing east-southeast for approximately 230 miles (370 km) to its juncture with the Río Napo at Pantoja. It is navigable for smaller boats. The Rio de Janeiro Protocol of 1942 fixed the lower course of the Aguarico (Spanish: “Rich Water”) as part of the long-disputed Ecuador-Peru

Chess

2005-02-17T18:48:00.000-08:00

Garry Kasparov of Russia, the undefeated former world champion under the Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE), the world ruling body, proved that he was by far the strongest player in the world with three excellent tournament victories in the first half of 1999, but he refused to take part in the official knockout title contest arranged by FIDE in the U.S. in the summer.

'aziz, Al-

2005-02-17T18:28:00.000-08:00

The first of the Fatimids to begin his reign in Egypt, where the caliphate was later centred, al-'Aziz succeeded his father, al-Mu'izz, in 975. He was ambitious to expand his domains at the expense of the Byzantine Empire and of the rival 'Abbasid caliphate, and for most of his reign he was involved

Pacific Ocean, Fisheries

2005-02-17T00:56:00.000-08:00

Because of the biological richness of certain reaches of the Pacific and because of the large human populations in many of the nations bordering it, the catches there are substantially larger than those in the other oceans and comprise three-fifths of the total world catch. Among Pacific nations, Japan and Russia have the largest fisheries in the world as measured

China, Economic development

2005-02-16T16:41:00.000-08:00

Important changes occurred in agriculture. Millet had once been the major cereal food in the north, but gradually wheat grew in importance. Rice, imported from the south, was extended to the dry soil of the north. The soybean in a number of varieties proved to be one of the most important crops. Chinese farmers gradually developed a kind of intensive agriculture. Soil

Jungle Babbler

2005-02-15T15:38:00.000-08:00

Any of about 32 species of songbirds constituting the tribe Pellorneini of the babbler family Timaliidae. Found from Africa to Malaysia and the Philippines, these drab birds with slender, often hook-tipped bills skulk in forest undergrowth. An example is the striped jungle babbler, or spotted babbler (Pelloreum ruficeps), of Southeast Asia—16 centimetres (6 1/4 inches) long,

Alphabet, Arabic alphabet

2005-02-15T14:13:00.000-08:00

The Arabic script descended from the Aramaic through the Nabataean and the neo-Sinaitic alphabets. After the Latin script, it is the most widely used form of alphabetic writing in the modern world. The Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries AD brought the language and the script to the vast expanse of territory extending from India to the Atlantic Ocean. The Arabic

Trichloroethane

2005-02-15T10:40:00.000-08:00

One isomer, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, is used as a replacement for carbon tetrachloride as a cold-cleaning solvent for machinery; it is not used in vapour degreasing processes because no stabilizer is available that will prevent its decomposition at high temperatures.

Moore

2005-02-15T09:49:00.000-08:00

City, Cleveland county, central Oklahoma, U.S., a southern suburb of Oklahoma City. First settled in 1887 and originally called Verbeck, it was renamed for a conductor of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. Its population remained small until the 1960s when planned urban and industrial development began. Industries include the manufacture of aircraft parts, building

Elias, Norbert

2005-02-13T08:08:00.000-08:00

Elias studied medicine, philosophy, and sociology and taught at the universities of Heidelberg

Pacific Islands, Aboriginal groupings

2005-02-12T21:30:00.000-08:00

Natives of the Pacific tend to identify themselves by their home island or their mother tongue, saying, for example, that they are from Nauru or that they speak Fijian. Occasionally, however, they may invoke another, and larger, identity, claiming to be Polynesian, Micronesian, or Melanesian. As a geographic designation this representation has value, but as a mark of racial,

Smith, Dean Edwards

2005-02-12T11:32:00.000-08:00

The 1982 Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) championship game between the University of North Carolina and the University of Virginia featured some of the greatest players in college basketball--among them North Carolina guard Michael Jordan and Virginia centre Ralph Sampson. As a national television audience watched, however, Dean Smith, the North Carolina coach, instructed

Southeast Asia, History Of, Reappearance of regional interests

2005-02-12T04:09:00.000-08:00

After the end of the 17th century, the long-developed polities of Southeast Asia were pulled into a Western-dominated world economy, weakening regional trade networks and strengthening ties with distant colonial powers. In the early years of independence these ties often remained strong enough to be called neocolonial by critics, but after the mid-1960s these partnerships

Bioengineering

2005-02-11T14:57:00.000-08:00

The application of engineering knowledge to the fields of medicine and biology. The bioengineer must be well grounded in biology and have engineering knowledge that is broad, drawing upon electrical, chemical, mechanical, and other engineering disciplines. The bioengineer may work in any of a large range of areas. One of these is the provision of artificial means

Brugsch, Heinrich Karl

2005-02-11T09:47:00.000-08:00

Brugsch was sent to Egypt by the Prussian government in 1853 and met there the noted French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette. He then worked in the Berlin Museum. In 1860 he was sent to Persia; in 1864 he was consul

Tiel

2005-02-10T15:28:00.000-08:00

Formerly Thiel, gemeente (commune), Gelderland provincie, central Netherlands, on the Waal River, west-southwest of Arnhem. Chartered in 1200, Tiel developed as a medieval port and market town and became a member of the Hanseatic League. The town now has a horticultural school, serves a fruit-growing (cherries, apples, and pears) region, and has some light industries. Pop. (1992 est.) 32,643.

Production System

2005-02-10T14:36:00.000-08:00

Any of the methods used in industry to create goods and services from various resources.

Taconic Orogeny

2005-02-09T17:44:00.000-08:00

A mountain-building event that affected the Appalachian Geosyncline along the eastern coast of the United States. Evidence for the orogeny is most pronounced in the northern Appalachians, but its effects can be noted in the Ridge and Valley Province as far south as Tennessee and in the Piedmont Province as far south as Georgia. Originally thought to have occurred

Pittsburgh Glass

2005-02-09T09:09:00.000-08:00

American glassware produced from the end of the 18th century at numerous factories in that Pennsylvania city. Pittsburgh had the twin advantages of proximity to a source of cheap fuel (coal) and access to a good waterways system, which afforded an inexpensive means of distribution; thus, of the 50 glasshouses that sprang up in Pennsylvania between 1763 and 1850, 40 or more were situated

Giorgione

2005-02-08T21:25:00.000-08:00

Also called Giorgio Da Castelfranco , original name Giorgio Barbarelli extremely influential Italian painter who was one of the initiators of a High Renaissance style in Venetian art. His qualities of mood and mystery were epitomized in “The Tempest” (c. 1505), an evocative pastoral scene, which was among the first of its genre in Venetian painting.